Let us now proceed to a short review of the system of shamanism and philosophy [56] among the Goldi, Manehus and Northern Tungus. As regains the fundamental ideas as to the existence of spirits either permanently or temporary located in things and living beings, the Goldi do not differ very much from the Manehus and Northern Tungus. However, the human soul, according to the Goldi, consists of three elements of distinct origin, viz. omija and ergeni known to Manehus and Northern Tungus of Manchuria and Transbaikalia [57] with the same functions and names, also fan'a [58] which is peculiar to Goldi. With the idea of fan'a a very complex system of customs is bound. This system of customs is also known to the Msnchus and Tungus, but the latter evidently borrowed it from the Manehus. The theory of human soul among the Reindeer Tungus of Transbaikalia is different.
The customs concerning hunting and ritual eating of bear among the Goldi are much more developed than among other Tungus groups, while it is, at least at present, out of practice among the Manehus. However, a great esteem for this animal may also be seen in the Manchu folk-lore. It ought to be pointed out that the most developed form of bear complex is observed among Giliaks, Ainu, and Olcha. Olcha, being a Goldi group, have borrowed it probably from their neighbours, Giliaks [59]. Tiger also is an animal to which a special attention is paid by the Goldi, but the tiger complex is evidently decreasing among the groups living beyond this animal's area, i.e., Ussuriland, partly Manchuria. Tiger has appropriated the greatest importance among the Manchus. It is, however, not clear whether bear and tiger are really totemic animals, as some authors believe, or merely stand in some complex relations to other spirits and are honoured by all these groups (Goldi, Manchus and Northern Tungus) as the most serious and intelligent competitor in the struggle for life [60]. A very complex system of spirits enduri carefully elaborated by the Manchus (borrowed from the Chinese) is also adopted together with the name by the Goldi and in a lesser degree by the Northern Tungus of Manchuria (except the Reindeer Tungus!). The class of shamanistic spirits seon among Goldi has its analogy in the Tungus system of seven [61] and in the Manchu system of veceku (Man. Lit.), vecku, vocko (Man. Sp.). The Goldi system seems to be closer to that of the Northern Tungus than to that of the Manchus who have a peculiar classification of vocko rows each headed by a principal spirit [62]. However, among Tungus there are no spirits complexes like that among the Goldi, who have special groups directly connected with tiger and leopard [63]. Moreover they have a group dusxu which is represented in a picture n'urxa (n'uryan, of the Manchus) and, according to P. Simkevic (op. cit.), is borrowed from the Chinese through the Manchus, which is quite right. Such placings for spirits in a reduced form are known among all Northern Tungus of Manchuria (except the Reindeer group!), but among them such a kind of placings is reserved to burkan [64]. Some Goldi placings are absolutely similar to that among the Northern Tungus. I shall not go into further details of differences and similarities of the Goldi system and placings ivith those among other groups, which passes over the limits of the present paper, the above quoted facts being sufficient for concluding that the Goldi system in general and their spirits in some instances are similar to those of the Northern Tungus and in some other instances they are similar to those of the Manchus who themselves have borrowed some ideas and spirits, at least partly, from the Chinese and Mongols. Indeed, the borrowing of spirits is a general rule. The Goldi and generally various groups of Siberia, Manchuria and Mongolia do not abstain from acquiring new knowledge as to spirits and new methods of influencing them known to their neighbours [65]. It is interesting to note that among the Goldi the sacrifice and prayers addressed to various enduri, as among the Manchus and other Tungus who have borrowed this system of spirits, are not performed by shamans. The practice of worship of Chinese spirits and special Buddhist spirits is common, especially among the Goldi of the Ussuri and Sungari Rivers [66]. The fire spirit among the Goldi is absolutely similar to that among the Northern Tungus [67].
The shaman's functions and his election (I use this term owing to the lack of any other one word suitable for this purpose) by spirits in main traits is similar to that used by the Northern Tungus. The difference from the Manchus consists in that the latter practise a competitive examination of candidates and have p'joyun saman which is not mentioned among the Goldi and is unknown among the Northern Tungus investigated by me. The shaman's costume among the Goldi is different from that among Manchus. The difference from the latter consists in the head-dress — a hat with several long fur stripes and deer antlers made of iron, while among the Manchus it usually has one or more birds made of brass without any fur. The Manchus, however, rarely use iron antlers instead of brass birds. The use of very thin shavings of wood may be mentioned as another peculiarity of the Goldi shaman's garment. Such shavings of wood are characteristic of Giliak and Ainu complexes. The Goldi shaman's costume differs from that among the Northern Tungus (of Manchuria and others) in many respects. So for instance the Tungus shaman has no sisa (Manchus) or jamka (Goldi) which is a piece of skin with several big iron rattles of conical form worn as a belt; the Tungus shaman has no skirt, etc, [68].
The burial rite, transferring the soul to the world of the dead, and other customs, also ideas as to dead persons bear several characters showing an alien origin of these elements, among which a strong Chinese influence (including white mourning dress, paper money, wooden stick and many others) may be noted. The Chinese complex is much better represented among the Manchus than among the Goldi, being almost lacking among the Northern Tungus. The Instance of similarities in shamanistic practices and philosophic ideas among the Goldi with those among the Manchus and Northern Tungus may be augmented if desired, but for the purpose of the present paper the above instances suffice for showing that the Goldi complex is composed of the Northern Tungus and Manchu elements.
[56] Here I use the term «philosophy» just for abbreviation. All Goldi ideas concerning; cosmogony, relationship of man with environment as it seems to the Goldi, hypotheses as to living beings and natural phenomena in general, explanation of moral and social institutions and so forth I conveniently call philosophy. Back
[57] J. A. Lopatin is wrong, I think, in asserting: that omija at the third year of life transforms itself into ergeni. Among the Tungus and Manehus omi is a part of the human being which may be denned as «reproductory power» while ergen (Manehus), erga (Tungus) is the life itself, as a condition of matter. Back
[58] However fajengo (Man. Lit.) fojongo (Man. Sp.) —the complex soul. Back
[59] Dr. Irving Hallowell lately (1926) published a survey of bear ceremonialism (Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere,in Amer. Anthrop. Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1-175) in which he collected many facts including those dealing with the Goldi. However, the facts and their interpretations in some instance require revision. Back
[60] According to the Northern Tungus of Manchuria tiger is at the service of the forest spirit, «just like his dog», according to their expression. Totemism is a complex which has a limited geographical distribution and correlates with several other customs and ideas lacking among the Goldi and other Tungus groups. So, the cult of the above animals among the Goldi may happen to have but forms similar to those among groups practising a true totemism and thus to be a mere convergence. J. A. Lopatin finds some totemic indication in the term mafa which is not correct at all, for this term has a very wide meaning, not only that of a classificatory term of kinship, but it is a term employed when one wants to express a high esteem to someone. Moreover, this term is probably borrowed from an alien system of kinship terminology. By the way, J. A. Lopatin's translation of a prayer addressed to the tiger is very far from the Goldi text. (p. 207). Back
[61] For instance seon (Goldi), seven (Tungus of Manch.), sevo Olcha), seva (Reinder Tungus of Transb.) are variations of the same word among different groups. I am inclined to see in this word a loan term, which I expect to show in one of my further publications. But savaki (Barguz. Nerch. Bir.), seveki (Bir.), soki (Bir.), etc., is «placing, loeulus for spirit», among Goldi sevoki is the cross (Schmidt). However, among Negidals of the Middle course of the Amgun River the meaning of sivan (Schmidt) is not clear. Back
[62] Cf. my Essay of an Investigation on General Principles of Shamanism among the Tungus (in Russian), in Publications of the Historico-Philological Faculty of the Far Eastern University at Vladivostok, Vol. 1,1919, pp. 47-108. Back
[63] Ambanseon cannot be translated, as J. A. Lopatin does, «tiger,» but «the spirit tiger». Moreover, amba means literally great, large, etc., and with reference to tiger is used in order to avoid the common name of this animal, as the Manchus, Chinese and many others do when they speak about honourable persons — emperors, khans, elders, etc. Back
[64] The Goldi as well as the Manchus do not use this term at all. But among the Tungus of Manchuria and Mongolia, also Transbaikalia, this term being borrowed from Mongols, is now applied to non-shamanistic spirits. Little by little it also replaces old terms as savaki (not seven!), etc. «With reference to the origin of burkan, cf. N. D. Mironov and S. M. Shirokogoroff, Sramana-Shaman. Etymology of the word » Shaman ». in the Journal N.C.B.R.A.S. Vol. LV, 1924, p. 119, footnote 43) and Professor W. Bang, Turkalogische Brief e, etc., Zweiter Brief: Uzuntonluy-die Krone der Schoepfung, in Ungarische Jahrbticher », Vol. V. Fasc. 2,1925, p. 249, also Professor P. Pelliot A propos des Comans, in J. A. Av.—Juin, 1920, 11 ser. Vol. XV, p. 158, footnote. This footnote previously escaped my attention. There is, of course, no reason to use this term with reference to the Goldi. However, I do not think that Goldi have but one term seon for all spirits except enduri and buseku. Moreover, this term cannot be applied to various manifestations (as toad, snakes, tiger, leopard, bear, anthropomorphic images, etc.) of single and complex seon and it can never be used for designation of placings (loculi) for those manifestations. Generally speaking P. Simkevic and J. A. Lopatin do not quite sharply distinguish the spirits and their placings (loculi). The terms «idol», ikona (of Russians), etc., also confuse very much what these authors want to express. Back
[65] The same may be referred to any other knowledge. Dr. B. Laufer (The Reindeer and its Domestication, in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, Vol. IV, No. 2, 1917, p. 121) says that the Tungus «are shifting opportunists». It is indeed quite true not only with reference to economic conditions and technical eulture, but also with reference to other complexes. Moreover, it is true not only with reference to the Tungus, but also with reference to other ethnical groups. Generally speaking, ethnical units borrow from their neighbours everything which may be usefully applied to their needs without producing any harmful effect. Stabilization of complexes, a kind of orthodoxy, I think, is generally a very rare phenomenon, occurring usually in the case of relaxed inter-ethnical relations and pressure (consequently, a decline of the unit). During the last twenty or more years many ethnographers are inclined to recognize a classification of geographical areas and ethnographical complexes instead of ethnical groupings. The best instance of lacking «orthodoxy» is European science, the development of which is based on a continuous borrowing. Let us remember that philosophy (including religion), methods of thinking, and general knowledge among non-European ethnical groups, the most «inferior», is one of the forms for establishing some relations with the environment, i.e., exactly the same phenomenon as science among Europeans. Back
[66] Two different sources of these influences may be distinguished viz., one going through the intermediary of the Manchus, which is surely a very old one, and another provided by the lately migrated Chinese. It is interesting that Buddhism was widely spread among the Ussuri Goldi a long time before the last migrating wave of the Chinese reached the Ussuri River region. M. Veniukov (op. cit. pp. 89-90) in 1858 saw several small shrines and images of a Chinese origin in every Goldi house. Th. Busse in 1869 wrote (Sketch of Land Tenure in the Amur and, in Biblioteka dla chtenija, Aug.— Dec. in Russian) that Buddhism had intruded very deeply among Goldi of Ussuri. It is, however, evident that such a general adoption of a religious practice requires a very long time. It is not surprising that du Halde (op. cit) noticed that Buddhist images had not been observed (the end of the XVIIth century) among this Goldi group. It is, of course, beyond any doubt that the greatest influence on the Goldi was exercised by their neighbours, the Manchus, who formally adopted Buddhism. Thus Buddhism, rather some practices and ceremonies, were introduced among the Goldi previous to the Chinese migration. In not a lesser degree the same may be referred to the Goldi of the Sungari River, but with reference to Amur River Goldi perhaps (I have no personal observation but a few Goldi whom I occasionally met were Manchus and Northern Tungus) it is not so, for the Manchu and Chinese influences are evidently decreasing, going further from their centres (cf. Sramana-Shaman, etc., p. 119 sq.). An early source of a Buddhist influence are Nui-chen. Among Nui-ehen, who were the neighbours of the ancestors of the Goldi and Udehe in the beginning of the XIIth century, the Chinese travellers recorded Buddhist monasteries (cf. E. Chavannes, Voyageurs Chinois chez les Khitan et les Joutchen, in Journ. Asiatique, 1897-1898, p. 395). Their Emperor used a head-dress and a throne imitating the head-dress and chair of buddhist missionaries (ibid.. 432). Yet another source of buddhist practices is earlier than that of Nui-chen and it came from Korea,where Buddhism was first introduced in the IVth century. Back
[67] The classification of all spirits into three groups of high, middle and low spirits proposed by J. A. Lopatin is an adaptation of the Goldi system to the ideas with which the Russian intellectual middle class complex is very familiar but it cannot be justified by a careful analysis of the Goldi system. Yet it is wrong to assert that seon are evil spirits and that the shaman is a «demonic power». True, in the above Russian complex the idea of indifference as regards «good» and «evil» can find no place. Indeed, it is absolutely right that some of spirits are useless and harmful for man (Goldi) and cannot be utilized at all. So, these spirits are malevolent par excellence. However, the spirits, as J. A. Lopatin also shows, may be benevolent or malevolent according to the art of managing them. It is evident that this investigator has not understood the essential of the Goldi system. More than that, in spite of the fact that the Goldi philosophical system is a very developed one and gives an answer to almost every question rising in the process of understanding the. environment, this author several times repeats with an undeeeitfully hidden feeling of superiority to the erroneous ideas of the Goldi that they are «pitiful savages», «primitive people» and so forth. This behaviour is characteristic of many ethnographers having passed throughout the influence of the early school of ethnographers of the last century. It may, however, be noted that J. A. Lopatin's previous papers included in his book are much more defective than the parts of the book written later. I shall now dwell a little more upon another deviation of ethnographers' behaviour, which is also very dangerous for investigators analyzing an alien complex. This instance is furnished us by W. Bogoras (Ideas of Space and Time in the Conception of Primitive Religion, in the American Anthropologist, Vol. 27, No. 2, 1925, pp. 205-267) who has made an attempt at comparing the Chukchi (and other «primitive») spirit conception with the modern ideas of space and time as physical and mathematical categories. First of all this author is wrong in comparing these new acquisitions of European scientific thought (above all expounded in a popular way, in terms of «ethnographical» ideas as to these categories) with an alien complex. As these ideas for the convenience of readers not versed in modern physics and mathematics are usually expressed in European popular conceptions which are in many instances similar to fundamental conceptions of the Chukchi and other «primitive» groups, it is not surprising that the result of comparison seems to be positive. It is obvious that the Chukchi ideas and methods of thinking are very far away from the latest acquisitions of European science which cannot be expressed even in European common terms but in formula. On the other hand, it is also evident that such an attempt being a popularisation of highest acquisitions of human thought for a general reader (two distinct complexes!) is one of forms of adaptation of a new complex to another one, i.e., something like the fate of moral teaching of Sakyamuni among the Northern Tungus of Manchuria. The practical conclusion for ethnographers is that one of two alien logic and philosophic systems cannot be compared in terms and notions of another one. In order to avoid a possible confounding of distinct ideas, the systems must be investigated independently one from another. The only common thing between the Chukchi's logic and methods of thinking and that of European physicists and mathematicians is that both are products of an attempt at conceiving the environment and the work of the human mind. Back
[68] There are at least four types of shaman's costume in the Far East, namely: Manchu (Goldi, Orochi and Udehe), Tungus of Manchuria (Dahurs, Solon? except the Reindeer group), Reindeer Tungus of Transbaikalia (Reindeer Tungus of Manchuria and Amur Gov.) and Nomad Tungus (in some relationship with the Buriat costume). Besides these types some influences of costume known among Turkic groups may also be seen. Moreover, some elements have spread irregularly among the groups of the Far East and some groups have a very mixed costume, as well as their system of spirits. Back